Literature Review of Body Temperature Studies

Literature Review of Body Temperature Studies Literature survey Body temperature is one of the vital signs and it is a complex clinical variable, which can be captured accurately and quantitatively analysed 1-2. According to German physician Wunderlich, the normal body temperature is defined as 37 0C and fever as 38 0C 3. A healthy, resting adult human normal core body temperature is 37 0C. However body temperature is not constant and varies among individuals throughout the day, because of individuals metabolism rate, which is directly proportional to the normal core body temperature, time of a day or part of the body in which the temperature measured at, in the early morning the body temperature is lower and in late evening it is high due to after muscular activity and food intake. Body temperature also varies at different sites. In clinical practice the rectal, oral, axillary, forehead and ear are used to measure body temperature. An oral site, which is more convenient to measure temperature is at 37 0C. Axillary site is not accurate to measure the temperature, where temperature fall at least value36.4 0C is noted from this site. Generally rectal temperature is considered to be the gold standard for core body temperature and average temperature is fall at 37.60C.Being an internal core body temperature, it is least time consuming procedure. The temperature is higher than at other sites, due to the low blood flow and high isolation of the area, giving a low heat loss16. Rectal temperature measurement is unhygienic and can pose a risk of injury to the intestinal mucosa, especially in infants and in rectal surgery. It increases physical and psychological stress and can cause embarrassment, anxiety and physical discomfort17. The tympanic is a good site for non-invasive measurement of core body temperature. Howeve r care should be exercised with the different modes of operation offered.18 When summarizing studies with able or adequately able affirmation, the ambit for articulate temperature was 33.2-38.2 0C, rectal: 34.4-37.8 0C, tympanic: 35.4-37.80C. The ambit in articulatetemperature for men and women, respectively, was 35.7-37.7and 33.2-38.1 0C, in abdominal 36.7-37.5 in tympanic 35.5-37.5 and35.7-37.5 0C1. Mackowiak et al. in 1992 recorded the body temperatures of 65 men with the average value of36.8 0C (98.2 0F).4 The thermometer is one of the most attempted and trusted clinical instruments, yet surprising surround the information which it yields. The use of thermometer in clinical medicine was started in the middle of 19th century. However its understanding and significance of temperature measurement in health and diseased condition was occurred from past twenty decades 19. Thermometer is invented in seventeenth-century, it did not reach medicine until the 1870s, it was already in veterinary use because it provided an early diagnosis of the dreaded cattle plague-as discovered 100 years earlier by a French veterinary student. On the other hand the existence of fever had been recognized since 600 B.C. For most of this time, fever was believed to be beneficial, even to absurd degrees. `If there were a physician skilful1 enough to produce a fever it would be useless to seek any other remedy against disease-according to Rufus of Ephesus in A.D. 100. By the 17OOs, however, the ability of willow bark to reduce fever became known and, as ever, once an effective drug was available, excellent use was found for it. The ability to control fever fostered the belief that it ought to be controlled, or at least that it was unhelpful, without much real evidence: `The role of fever in disease remains unexplained. Fever may eventually be shown to confer a greater advantag e to the defence mechanism of the host than to the invasive properties of the microorganism19. In 1861, Carl Wunderlich was the first German physician performed the systemic measurement of human core body temperature in healthy individuals, the average reported value was 37 0C or 98.6 degree Fahrenheit. Because of his work on temperature Wunderlich is generally regarded as the father of clinical thermometry20-21. According to Wunderlich, normal body temperature lies within a range of 97.2 0F/36.2 0C to 99.5 0F/37.5 0C. Wunderlich found that the body temperature is not constant and varies in both healthy and unhealthy individuals. He wrote, The lowest point is reached in the morning hours between two and eight, and the highest in the afternoon between four. In his investigation the body temperature rises in mental exertion, constipation and urine retention.He observed that women have slightly higher body temperature than men and among age groups; older individuals have significantly lower body temperature compare to younger individuals20. Body temperature is influenced by several factors, such as diurnal variation and cellular metabolism, due to muscle activity during the day exercise and ambient temperature 22-23. Daily body temperature is not dependent on site of measurement, which is non-linear, and characterized by moment to moment complex variability 4 .The cosinor analysis of temperature variability data is well established in circadian research of body temperature rhythms, which is described in a simple cosine wave, which is typically characterized in terms of acrophase, amplitude, and mesor, where it filtered out the complex variability data4. Under natural conditions expected timing of the nadir and acrophase , value of the mesor, and amplitude of temperature rhythm was significantly different in an individual’s temperature rhythm, which will be influenced by many endogenous countenance of the environments as well as health status4. During menstrual period, there is an increase in body temperature ranging from 0.5-1.0 ° F/0.25-0.5 ° C is typically observed at or around ovulation(ref- Circannual and menstrual rhythm characteristics in manic episodes and body temperature. in note.) . Comparison of between follicular phase and the post-ovulation luteal phase, body temperature is elevated, but the amplitude of the temperature rhythm is reduced (ref- Circadian rhythms, sleep, and the menstrual cycle. In word doc.). It has been reported that the temperature in luteal stage is 0.4 0C higher than follicular stage (26 ref- in note ). (Check original ref no. in protocol.) This is mainly because of the progesterone hormone level in luteal stage and some studies proved that rise in body temperature is due to effect of progesterone hormone whereas oestrogen has lowering effect. the temperature remain elevated in luteal phase as long as the progesterone levels are increased. ( ref-29 and 33 in note.) )(check 27-28 origina l ref ) Physical fitness varies the normal body temperature; Atkinson G et al found that the physically active groups have higher amplitude of temperature than inactive groups. However the oral temperature of physically active group had lower than inactive group at 2.00 and 6.00. Rest of the time physically active group had significantly higher oral temperature than inactive group. Age has also an important role in variability of temperature. In most of the studies reported that cosinor analysis of temperature; mesor and amplitude decreases with increase in age. Gubin et al reported that normal temperature range is higher in young adults than in elders. Mesor is higher in young adults (97.5 ° F/36.38 ° C) than in elderly subjects (97.1 ° F/36.17 ° C) and amplitude was also increased in young adults than in elderly subjects. The mean circadian acrophase was similar in both age groups (17:19 versus 16:93); however, inter-individual differences were higher in the older group, with individual values varying between 10:00 and 23:00 hours (ref.-48 in note ). In another study Howell et al recorded the oral temperature using electronic thermometer in 105 females age ranges from 61-105 years and reported a group mean of 36 0C,which is significantly lower than in a younger adults.(29 in original protocol). Touitou et al, found that the daily body temperature ampl itude was decreased in the elderly subjects when compared to healthy adult individuals.(30 in original protocol). Nonlineardynamics and complexity theory appear to offer an alternative approach. Many biological structures can be regarded as natural fractals and much physiological behaviour can be explained by deterministic chaos (heart rate, bacterial population growth, hormonal secretion pulses, and epidemics. Furthermore, in many cases, pathological conditions and ageing are known to be accompanied by losses in complexity. The complexity of the temperature curve could be regularly measured in all cases. Consistent results were obtained using three entirely independent methods that measure different aspects (in two cases the dynamic behaviour, in the other the anfractuosity of the curve), with good correlation between all methods. None of the complexity measures was significantly different for the two sexes, nor were they affected by the BMI. On the other hand, all measures of complexity were inversely correlated with age. This finding is somehow coded in the temperature readings, but classical statistical indicators are not capable of bringing it to light. The finding of an inverse correlation between age and the degree of complexity of the temperature curve was likewise not unexpected. Ageing and illness are known to be accompanied by a loss of complexity in certain patterns of chaotic behaviour12. For instance; variability in heart rate decreases with age and in certain conditions is associated with a poor prognosis31. It could be argued that, as has been postulated for heart rate, body temperature is governed by several different regulatory systems (thermogenesis, vasoconstriction- vasodilatation mechanisms, sweating, breathing rate) and at the same time is subject to external factors (ambient temperature, exercise, clothing). Perhaps illness and ageing cause a certain decoupling or isolation of the thermal regulatory system from its surroundings. This in turn could result in less complexity of the temperature plot, leading to lower ApEn and FDc values and higher DFA values12. Varela et al. reported that in healthy subjects, the temperature curve behaves like a natural fractal whose complexity may be analyzed in a consistent manner. In addition, they observed that complexity decreased significantly with age. The complexity of the temperature curve is tightly inversely correlated with the severity of the patients condition. Both mean and minimum ApEn were significantly lower in patients who died than in patients who survived. Consequently one would expect to see a reduced complexity in the temperature readings of critically ill patients, the level of complexity mirroring the patients clinical evolution. In this respect, the mean ApEn value for the patient series was significantly lower than the mean ApEn for a series of 21 healthy subjects. The inverse correlation between the ApEn values and the SOFA scores in most of thein their series was likewise consistent with that premise32. In another study of Varela et al. reported that there was good correlation between complexity results and clinical scores for each patient. Non survivors exhibited lower complexity values than survivors, so low levels of complexity in the temperature curve are poor indicators  of prognosis in patients with multiple organ failure.  The predictive ability of temperature curve complexity is similar to that of the SOFA score33. Available evidence suggested that body temperature is a complex, non-linear physiological variable and has an accepted 24 hour rhythm associated with health. Body temperature is also subject to many sources of endogenous and exogenous variation4. Temperature curve analysis may provide relevant information on the aetiology of fever thus may assist in early diagnosis of disease 12. There are few cases where rectal temperature is measured intermittently using thermometer to generate fever patterns but it is a tedious procedure and has a limited usefulness in diagnosis of certain clinical conditions such as, double quotidian fever curves in diagnosis of mixed malarial infections, visceral leishmaniasis, right-sided gonococcal endocarditis and sustained fever patterns in typhoid fever 13. Musher D M et al found that the fever pattern is not likely to be helpful in diagnosis of sustained fever in Gram-negative pneumonia or in CNS damage with possible exceptions.(new ref in fever pattern). Papaioannou et al studied temperature curve complexity using wavelet transformation in 22 patients with systemic inflammation found that there is a decrease in complexity of temperature especially more in sepsis condition. They suggested that complexity analysis of temperature signals can help in assessment of inherent thermoregulatory dynamics during systemic inflammation and also can increase discriminating value in patients with infectious versus non-infectious conditions, probably associated with severity of illness. However monitoring of 24 hour ambulatory core body temperature so far has been limited and still remains obscure. Studies have shown that core body temperature is not constant, and fluctuates in different clinical conditions and in various endogenous and exogenous factors, where variability of core body temperature patterns is noted. However assessment of 24 hour core body has not been established in detail. Thus standardization of core body temperature using spectral analysis might play a significant role in clinical practice, which would potentially help us to predict clinical outcome in the early part of fever in patients and with other associated clinical conditions.

The First Battle Of Bull Run Essay -- essays research papers

THE FIRST BATTLE OF BULL RUN On July 21, 1861, two armies, one confederate and the other Union, prepared for the first major land battle of the Civil War. In 1861 Abraham Lincoln was sworn in as President. The Southern states had seceded and the South had fired on and captured Fort Sumter on April 12 1861.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  After the Fort Sumter battle, both the North and the South began preparing for war by raising armies. This was done quickly and neither side spent much time training the troops. Both sides also did not know what a long and terrible war was ahead.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The first Battle of Bull Run took place near Manassas Junction, Virginia, an important railroad junction twenty five miles west of Washington, D.C. Bull Run Creek twisted and turned through Manassas Junction. The Shenandoah Valley, a Southern stronghold was thirty miles to the northwest of Manassas Junction. Both the Bull Run Creek and the nearby Shenandoah Valley gave the South two advantages in this battle.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In July 1861, tow armies faced each other in Northern Virginia. General Irvin McDowell, commander of the Union Army of the Potomac had 31,000 men in Washington. General Beauergard of the Confederate Army had 20,000 troops camped around Manassas Junction.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  To the north, near Harriers Ferry, Confederate General Joseph Johnston with 9,000 soldiers faced off with Union General Patterson who was dug...

To kill a mockingbird book vs. movie

In these two versions, there are a couple of differences. A big one that noticed is that Mrs.. Dubos Is left out of the movie. Mrs.. Dubos was an old lady addicted to morphs en and in the novel she showed moral courage. In the beginning, Gem hated Mrs.. Dubos beck cause of her views on his dad, but she ended up teaching him a lesson. Mrs.. Double's wish w as to die ‘beholden to nobody' even though she knew she would have to go through suffering without the help of the drug.Others would have chosen a untroubled death, but Mrs. Dubos was adamant to conquer her addiction and to die with the pain instead. Attic's didn't WA NT Gem to think that ‘courage is a man with a gun in his hand' so, he sent him to Mrs.. Double's t o learn this. This Is very Important because It helps Gem realize what courage Is and Isn't. Also, in the novel, Gem and Scout go to Scaloppini's church while Attic's is working. This is a really significant moment in the story which they did not show in the m ovie.This being a time of prejudice where whites had their own churches and the blacks had t heir own churches. So, when Gem and Scout show up with California some people aren't comfy ratable with the children because of their white skin color. But, California sticks up for the chi lilied and says that, â€Å"It's all the same god, anti it? † The children also learn that California live sees a ‘double life' because they hear her speak different among white and black folks.

Managing change and overcoming fear of change - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 16 Words: 4835 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? 1.0 Introduction The phenomenon of resistance to change is the bane of all Algerian bakeries that convey ideas for change. For the same one who proposed the change, the resistances are usually synonymous with hostility, intrigue deadlines, polarization, conflict, and impatience, many problems which are likely to frustrate and undermine the success of his bakery. Basically, resistance to change is built up from many sources; internal and external. Overcoming resistance to change requires first the identification of those sources. Therefore, the owner of the bakery El-Bahdja is looking for an expert or professional advice in the field to help managing change effectively. Hence, as this topic is part of the international business and management studies, the owner asked me to do some research on this matter. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Managing change and overcoming fear of change" essay for you Create order Ultimately, this research is divided into two major chapters, first; the literature part that discusses the main topic theoretically, it starts off by mentioning the general sources that fuels the resistance to change, then it goes on with hofdstedes point of view on resistance of change based on cultural differences and it concludes by describing the steps of managing change effectively and it concludes with. The second major chapter is the analysis of the findings from the primary data that have been collected through interviews with owners and employees from the bakery El-Bahdja and owners from other bakeries. Finally this paper is closed by recommendations for the owner of the bakery El-Bahdja on how to overcome resistance to change and how to manage change. 1.1 Research objective Many companies in North Africa particularly in Algeria are making loss and could not improve the quality of their business due to the habit of following common procedures and the high consideration of sunk costs invested in the status quo and fear of new ideas. Lack of adequate information fuels rumors and gossip and adds to anxiety generally associated with change. This fear creates resistance to change in the Algerian bakery industry Therefore, this research focuses on finding the elements that fuel the resistance to change in the Algerian bakeries and specifically the bakery El Bahdja that produces and delivers all kind of bread and pastries. The owner of the Algerian Bakery El-Bahdja is an old man and has been in the business since 1967. The owner is facing the closing down due to lack of managing change skills in the bakery and the high resistance from the employees to change. The main objective of this research is to provide the owner of the bakery El-Bahdja with guidance to effectively managing change when it is in the process of the implementation. 1.2 Research questions To provide guidance on how to manage changes for the owner of the bakery El-Bahdja it is essential first to find answers to the following research questions. Does Algerian culture welcome changes Why most Algerian employers and employees resist changing? What are the external factors that prevent Algerian employers and employees from changing? How do Algerian employers and employees manage change when applying the new ideas? 1.3 Methodology This study is based on both primary and secondary data that help in understanding the causes of resistance to change from both the Algerian owners and their employees: Secondary data collection: this method studies the previous cases that have already been written about and find the similarities between the cases. This method is very helpful in collection data from different cultures that share the same fact which is fear of new ideas that have direct effect on their traditional way of doing business. Therefore, the resources of the secondary data collection are mainly from books, journals, and internet. Primary data: a very crucial data and plays a big role in making final decision. The primary data which is better called direct communication or field research, on other word; facing people and have them interviewed. The objective of this method is to collect factual data that helps in answering the research questions of this study and this after interviewing people from the same field on the main topic. Reflection on the research methodology: the methods followed for collecting data are linked together. The secondary data helps understand the theoretical concepts that have been concluded from previous cases and compare them to the new facts. In this method; the 7s model of McKinsey, the theory versus the real world by Jeff Hiatt and Arab identity by Halim Barakat are used as starting point for facing organizational change in Algeria. The primary data is basically the tangible evidence for decision makers, observing and interviewing people are the major tools to be used in collecting data for this study. Reliability and validity of data are the essential axes of this method. Therefore, the interviews take place specifically with owners of bakeries and their employees in Algeria and in the Netherlands for comparison to see whether culture differences is a matter for resisting changing. 2.1 Why managing change? Change is believed to happen Changes are fact and every person is subject to these changes. People faces changes regularly in their life or in their workplace, part of them deal with these changes successfully and the other part fail to adjust to change. In the life, for instance a family with children; parents believe that children are subject to changes and may change to better or to the opposite that parents plan for them, however these changes would not affect the family as a whole but the person himself. Nevertheless, in a business changes there are two ways and no third, successfully manage change or failure. In organization whether you are an executive, supervisor, coach, consultant, project team leader or manager of any type where your job is to manage people, you likely have experienced resistance to change from employees. However you may not recognize the role that you can play in preventing that resistance and leading change. Many managers do not make this connection until they have personally experience failure in an important change project (Jeff Hiat, Timothy J. Creasey 2003) When asking people after this failure what would you do differently if you had the chance to do it again? The common response would be using an effective and planned change management program. The question to be risen here is whether this program is sufficient enough to prevent resistance to change from happening in the first place and deal with people emotions and pursue them to change. The real barrier to success is a lack of change management and not management program. Some people do not lack of vision or an understanding of the marketplace but they feel simply short when managing the people side of change. In other words, things did not go exactly as planned. The unexpected happened. Not managing the people side of change impacts the success and introduces risk into the business (Jeff Hiat, Timothy J. Creasey 2003) Change management skills have shown that is not only mitigates these business risks, but also can avoid them entirely. Business leaders have change management skills to not only manage resistance once it appears, but to prevent it from occurring. 2.2 Change and the manager Change needs to be portrayed in positive terms, a necessity to ensure long term survival (Robert A Poton, James McCalman, 2008) Organizations and their managers must recognize change, in itself, is not necessarily a problem. The problem more often than not is a less than competent management o the change situation (Rob Paton, James McCalman, 2008). Managers must realize that one cannot separate strategic change management from organizational strategy; both must work in tandem. The importance of the human side of change cannot be underestimated, one must identify and manage the potential sources and causes of potential resistance and ensure that motivators are built into new processes and structures (Forlaron, 2005). i) Change competency: Change is part of the businesss philosophy The successful organization is the organization that understand change will occur, expect it and support the change during implementation (Jeff Hiat, 2003) An organization that faces constant demands to change and uses effective management over and over with each new initiative may experience a fundamental shift in its operations and the behavior of its employees. Sponsors begin to repeat activities that made last change successful. Managers develop skills to support employees through the change. Employees see part of their job as navigating these new changes. Each level in the organization will have internalized its role in change and developed the skills and knowledge necessary to react to constant change. The organization has become ready and able to embrace change; it has developed change competency (Jeff Hiat, Timothy J. Creasey, 2003). However, building change competency is not paved with flowers; it requires a belief that change is now an ever-present feature of organizational life (Burnes, 2004). Change competency is similar to change management, but there are several key distinction. First, change management is ultimately the use of specific activities like communication, coaching, sponsorship and training; to realize successful outcomes with business changes. Change competency is not a specific activity; it is an organizations ability to react to change over and over again Second, while change management can be taught and learned, change competency requires a fundamental shift in culture and values. It must be simply part of day-to-day operations and cannot be simply demonstrated in training or instructional material. Third, change competency must penetrate every facet and level of the organization. This distinction especially relates to the front-line employee. An organization may have expertise in change management in its sponsors, consultants and change management. However, the front-line employees are the ones whose day-to-day activities are changing. To build change competency into the organization, you can take the first step by ensuring that solid change management practices are applied consistently for each change initiative. The second step is to begin building the following competencies into your organization (Jeff Hiat, Timothy J. Creasey, 2003) ii) Change and Human Resource Technology has played a major role in ensuring that a coherent business approach and managerial performance can be maintained from a reduce resource base. The key success in such moves has been the mobilization of the human resource (Pettigrew and Whipp, 1993). 2.3 Managing resistance once it appears Believing in changes to be happening is a key principle to reducing resistance to change People are often afraid of new ideas. They may feel threatened by new ideas and fear that they will not be able to cope with a change in working patterns that is demanded of them or that they will not understand how to use a new technology; example of that many older people are afraid of materials that they are not able to handle and may make them calling the technician every moment (Tony proctor 2005). The fear of new ideas is a natural feeling; people live with this fear and it not a bad manner. Fear of new ideas becomes negative when is surrounded with sources that increase the tension of fear that leads to high level of resistance and consequently aggravation of the failure of any project. Change more often than not produces suspicions and resistance. To many it implies a move from familiar ways-mastered over long periods of time- to an unknown and threatening environment. In order to deal effectively with resistance to change, people must understand its causes (Jack Rabin, Marcia B. Steinhauer, 1988). Lawrence and Greiner 1970, identify the main sources that feed the resistance of change. Fear of the unknown, lack of information, threats of status, fear of failure, and lack of perceived benefits. Regarding the first group of sources of resistance, change starts with the perception of its need, so a wrong initial perception is the first barrier to change. This first group is called distorted perception, interpretation barriers and vague strategic priorities (Pardo del Val, Manuela Martnez Fuentes). It includes: (a) Inability of the company to look into the future with clarity (Barr et al., 1992; Krger, 1996; Rumelt, 1995); (b) Denial or refusal to accept any information that is not expected or desired (Barr et al., 1992; Rumelt, 1995; Starbuck et al., 1978); (c) Perpetuation of ideas, meaning the tendency to go on with the present thoughts although the situation has changed (Barr et al., 1992; Krger, 1996; Rumelt, 1995; Zeffane, 1996); (d) Implicit assumptions, which are not discussed due to its implicit character and therefore distort reality (Starbuck, Greve and Hedberg, 1978); (e) Communication barriers, that leads to information distortion or misinterpretations (Hutt et al., 1995); (f) Organizational silence, which limits the information flow with individuals who do not express their thoughts, meaning that decisions are made without all the necessary information (Morrison and Milliken, 2000; Nemeth, 1997). The second main group of sources of resistance deals with a low motivation for change. Five fundamental sources: (a) Direct costs of change (Rumelt, 1995); (b) cannibalization costs, that is to say, change that brings success to a product but at the same time brings losses to others, so it requires some sort of sacrifice (Rumelt, 1995); (c) Cross subsidy comforts, because the need for a change is compensated through the high rents obtained without change with another different factor, so that there is no real motivation for change (Rumelt, 1995); (d) Past failures, which leave a pessimistic image for future changes (Lorenzo, 2000); and (e) Different interests among employees and management, or lack of motivation of employees who value change results less than managers value them (Waddell and Sohal, 1998). The lack of a creative response is the third set of sources of resistance. There are three main reasons that diminish the creativeness in the search for appropriate change strategies: (a) Fast and complex environmental changes, which do not allow a proper situation analysis (Ansoff, 1990; Rumelt, 1995); b) Reactive mind-set, resignation, or tendency to believe that obstacles are inevitable (Rumelt, 1995); and (c) Inadequate strategic vision or lack of clear commitment of top management to changes (Rumelt, 1995; Waddell and Sohal, 1998). Taking into consideration all those sources of resistance mentioned above can reverse the situation into preventing resistance in the first place. Cultural web: Cultures differ from each other in their resistance to change. The strongest resistance to change characterizes of high power distance, low individualism, and high uncertainty avoidance. Among these cultures are most Latin American countries, Portugal and Korea, followed by Japan, France, Spain, Greece, Turkey, and Arab countries. Cultures with low levels of resistance to change are low on power distance, high on individualism, and low on uncertainty avoidance. This category includes the Anglo countries, Nordic countries, and the Netherlands, followed by Singapore, Hong Kong, and South Africa (Harzig and Hofdestede, 1996 2.4 Making sense of change management 7S model of McKinsey: The Mckinsey 7S model defines the seven components that encompass an organization and that by changing any one of the S components there is impact on the other S components. This model is such a conceptual aid by acting as good checklist for those setting out to make organizational change, laying out which parts of the system need to adapt, and the effects of these changes in other parts of the system (Mike Green, 2007) The 7s categories are: Staff important categories of people within the organization, the mix, the diversity, retention, the development and the maximizing of their potential. This component helps to determine how committed resources to make it all work? Skills distinctive capabilities, knowledge and experience of key people. The role of this component is to identify how ready and competent are the staff based on where the organization is heading? Systems processes, IT systems, HR systems, knowledge management systems. In other words, what are the suitable systems to be used to support the transition? Style management style and culture. How we are getting from here to there? Shared values guiding principles that make the organization what it is. Strategy organizational goals and plan, use of resources. Briefly is where are we transitioning to? Structure the organization chart and how roles, responsibilities and accountabilities are distributed in furtherance of the strategy. The Mckinsey 7S model provides an effective framework for analyzing an organization and its activities that determine whether an organization is strong enough to adjust to any changes. Furthermore, this model helps in avoiding some of the sources that feed resistance to change in the first place 2.5 Five steps for effective change process (Thomas and Christopher, 2008) Step 1:Motivating change: Moving from the known to the unknown Organizational change involves moving from the known to the unknown. The future is uncertain and may adversely affect peoples competencies, worth, and coping abilities. Organization members generally do not support change unless compelling reasons convince them to do so. A key issue in planning for action is how to motivate commitment to organizational change. This requires attention to two related tasks: creating readiness for change and overcoming resistance to change. Creating Readiness for change: peoples readiness for change depends on creating a felt need for change. This involves making people so dissatisfied with the status quo that they are motivated to try new work processes, technologies, or ways of behaving. Generally people and organization need to experience deep levels of hurt before they will seriously undertake meaningful change. The following three methods can help generate sufficient dissatisfaction to produce change: Sensitize organizations to pressures for change. Modern organizations face unprecedented environmental pressures to change themselves, including heavy foreign competition, rapidly changing technology, and the draw of global markets. Internal pressures to change include new leadership, poor product quality, high production costs, and excessive employee absenteeism and turnover. Organizations can make themselves more sensitive to pressures for change by encouraging leadership to surround themselves with devils advocate; for instance by cultivating external networks that comprise people or organizations with different perspectives and views; by visiting other organizations to gain exposure to new ideas and methods. Reveal discrepancies between current and desired states. Significant discrepancies between actual and ideal states can motivate organization members to initiate corrective changes, particularly when members are committed to achieving those ideas. A major diagnosis is to provide members with feedback about current organizational functioning so that the information can be compared with goals or desired future states. Convey credible positive expectations for the change. When organization members expect success, they are likely to develop greater commitment to the change process and to direct more energy into the constructive behaviors needed to implement it. The key success to achieving these positive effects if to communicate realistic, positive expectations about the organizational changes*. Research suggests that information about why the change is occurring, how it will benefit the organization, and how people will be involved in the design and implementation of the change was most helpful.* Overcoming Resistance to change: At the organization level, resistance to change can come from three sources. Technical resistance comes from the habit of following common procedures and the consideration of sunk costs invested in the status quo. Political resistance can arise when organizational changes threaten powerful stakeholders, such as top executive or staff personnel, or call into question the past decisions of leaders. Finally, culture resistance takes the form of systems and procedures that reinforce the status quo, promoting conformity to existing values, norms, and assumptions about how things should operate. Empathy and support. A first step in overcoming resistance is learning how people are experiencing change. This strategy identifies people who are having trouble accepting the changes, the nature of their resistance, and possible ways to overcome it. Communication. People resist change when they are uncertain about its consequences. Lack of adequate information fuels rumors and gossip and adds to anxiety generally associated with change. Effective communication about changes and their likely results can reduce this speculation and allay unfounded fears. Participation and innovation. Involvement in planning the change increases the likelihood that members interests and needs will be accounted for during the intervention. Consequently, participants will be committed to implementing the changes. They also can identify pitfalls and barriers to implementations. STEP 2: CREATING A VISION The second activity in leading and managing change involves creating a vision of what members want the organization to look like or become. Generally, a vision describes the core values and purpose that guide the organization as well as an envisioned future toward which change is directed. It provides a valued direction for designing, implementing, and assessing organizational changes. The vision also can energize commitment to change by providing members with a common goal and a compelling rationale for why change is necessary and worth the effort. Research suggests that compelling visions are composed of two parts: (1) a relatively stable core ideology that describes the organizations core values and purpose, and (2) an envisioned future with bold goals and a vivid description of the desired future state that reflects the specific change under consideration Step 3: DEVELOPING POLITICAL SUPPORT Managing the political dynamics of change includes the following activities: Assessing Change Agent Power. Greiner and Schein 1988, indentified three key sources of personal power in organizations (in addition to ones formal position); knowledge, personality, and others support. Knowledge bases of power include having expertise that is valued by others and controlling important information. For example, leaders in organizational units undergoing change can call on their informal networks for resources and support, and encourage subordinates to exercise power in support of the change. Identifying Key Stakeholders. This can start with simple question. who stands to gain or to lose from the changes? Once stakeholders are identified, creating a map of their influence may be useful. Consequently, provides change agents with information about which people groups need to be influenced to accept and support the changes. Influencing Stakeholders. There are three major strategies for using power to influence others in organization development; First strategy is playing straight; this strategy involves determining of particular stakeholders and presenting information about how the changes can benefit them. The success of this strategy relies heavily on the change agents knowledge base. He or she must have the expertise and information to persuade stakeholders that the changes are a logical way to meet their needs. The second strategy is using social network; in this strategy change agents attempt to use their social relationships to gain support for changes. This social networking might include, for example, meeting with other powerful groups and forming alliances to support specific changes. This strategy also might include using informal contacts to discover key roadblocks to change and to gain access to major decision makers who need to sanction the changes. The third strategy is going around the formal system; the change agents charisma, reputations, or professional credibility lend legitimacy to going around the system and can reduce the likelihood of negative reprisals. For example, managers with reputations as winners often can bend the rules to implement organizational changes. However, this power strategy is relatively easy to abuse. Therefore; the OD practitioners should consider carefully the ethical issues and possible unintended consequences of circumventing formal policies and practices. Step 4: MANAGING THE TRANSITION Implementing organizational change involves moving from the existing organization state to the desired future state. There are three major activities and structure to facilitate organizational transition: activity planning, commitment planning, and change-management structures. Activity Planning This involves making a road map for change, citing specific activities and events that must occur if the transition is to be successful. Activity planning should clearly identify, temporally orient, and integrate discrete change tasks and should link these tasks to the organizations change goals and priorities. Commitment planning this activity involves identifying key people and groups whose commitment is needed for change to occur and formulating a strategy for gaining their support. Change-Management Structures Because organizational transitions tend to be ambiguous and to need direction, special structures for managing the change process need to be created. These management structures should include people who have the power to mobilize resources to promote change, the respect of the existing leadership and change advocates, and the interpersonal and political skills to guide the change process. Step 5: SUSTAINING MOMENTUM Once organization changes are under way, explicit attention must be directed to sustaining energy and commitment for implementing them. A strong tendency exists always among organization members to return to old behaviors and well-known processes unless they receive sustained support and reinforcement for carrying the changes through to completion. The following five activities can help to sustain momentum for carrying change through to completion: Providing resources for change. Additional financial and human resources are required for implementing organization change, particularly if the organization continues day-to-day operations while trying to change itself. Extra sources are always helpful to provide a buffer as performance drops during the transition period. Building a support system for change agents. Organization change can be difficult and filled with tension, not only for participants but for change agents as well. A support system typically consists of a network of people with whom the change agent has close personal relationships people who can give emotional support, serve as sounding board for ideas and problems, and challenge untested assumptions. Developing new competencies and skills, reinforcing new behaviors, and staying the course. In organizations people generally do things that bring them rewards. Consequently, one of the most effective ways to sustain momentum for change is to reinforce the kinds of behaviors needed to implement the changes through for instance informal recognition, encouragement, and praise. Staying the course. If the organization changes again too quickly or abandons the changes before it is fully implemented, the desired results may never materialize. There are two primary reasons that managers do not keep a steady focus on change implementation. First, many managers fail to anticipate the decline in performance, productivity, or satisfaction as change is implemented. Organization members need time to practice, develop, and learn new behaviors; they do not abandon old ways of doing things and adopt a new set of behaviors overnight. Second, many managers do not keep focused on a change because they want to implement the next big idea that comes along. Successful organizational change requires persistent leadership that does not waver unnecessarily. References Books and articles Ansoff, I.H. (1990), Implanting Strategic Management Prentice Hall International, Ltd. London Cynthia D. Scott, Dennis T. Jaffe. (2003), Managing change at work: leading people through organizational transitions, edit 3 Greiner, L.E. (1972), Evolution and revolution as organizations grow Harvard Business Review, pp. 37-46. Greiner, L E and Schein, V E. (1988), Power and Organization Development: Mobilizing power to change, Reading, MA: Addison Wesley Halim Barakat. (1993), The Arab world: society, culture, and state Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, Hutt, M.D., Walker, B.A. and Frankwick, G.L. (1995) Hurdle the Cross-Functional Barriers to Strategic Change Sloan Management Review, 36 (3), pp. 22-30. Jack Rabin, Marcia B. Steinhauer. (1988), Handbook on human services administration Public Administration and Public Policy/34, pp. 305 Krger, W. (1996), Implementation: The Core Task of Change Management CEMS Business Review, 1, pp. 77-96. Lawrence, P.R. (1954), How to Deal with Resistance to Change Harvard Business Review, (May/June), pp. 49-57. Mike Green. (2007), Change management masterclass: a step by step guide to successful change. Tony Proctor. (2005), Creative problem solving for managers: developing skills for decision making. Edition 2, pp. 241 Pardo Del Val, Manuela Martnez Fuentes RESISTANCE TO CHANGE: A LITERATURE REVIEW AND EMPIRICAL, p. 5-7 Rob Paton, James McCalman. (2008), Change Management: A Guide to Effective Implementation, edition 3, pp. 39-54 Rumelt, R.P. (1995), Inertia and transformation, in Montgomery, C.A., Resource-Based and Evolutionary Theories of the Firm, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Massachusetts, pp. 101-132. Rusell Tobin. (1999), Overcoming resistance to change, Second Edition, pp. 142 Starbuck, W., Greve, A. and Hedberg, B.L.T. (1978) Responding to crisis, Journal of Business Administration, 9 (2), pp. 111-137. Thomas G. Cummings, Christopher G. Worley. (2008), Organization development change, Edition 9, pp. 165-182 Waddell, D. and Sohal, A.S. (1998), Resistance: a constructive tool for change management, Management Decision, 36 (8), pp. 543-548. Zeffane, R. (1996), Dynamics of strategic change: critical issues in fostering positive organizational change, Leadership Organization Development Journal, 17, pp. 36-43. Websites: https://www.explorehr.org/articles/Organization_Analysis/Five_Steps_for_Effective_Change_Process.html Appendices Appendix A: Company history Company name: Bakery El-Bahdja Owner: Mohamed Mezioud Address: 11 Humeg Idir 5 maisons El Mohammadia Algiers, Algeria The bakery El-Bahdja was founded in 1967. It delivers bread and pastries to many unites in Algiers. The traditional way of producing bread is still dominating the bakery. Appendix B: Name and addresses of the people interviewed Appendix C: Questions of the interviews Questions for the employees: Do you want the bakery to be changed? If no why you want the bakery to remain as it is But new machines will facilitate the work Questions for the owners: Why you do not change the bakery style? Is it a problem for you to have new sophisticated machines?